Amaranth and quinoa as potential nutraceuticals: A review of anti-nutritional factors, health benefits and their applications in food, medicinal and cosmetic sectors (2024)

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  Consumers are more aware of the importance of healthy and nutritious food.

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  Amaranth and quinoa have high nutritional value but they also contain some anti-nutritional factors.

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  Techniques like germination, fermentation and cooking reduce anti-nutritional factors and enhance mineral bioavailability

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  Consuming amaranth and quinoa offers various health benefits including reducing CVDs and improving blood sugar control.

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  See Also

  What Is Amaranth Good For? 7 Health BenefitsAmaranth Nutrition Facts and Health BenefitsAmaranth: The Once and Future Crop?How to Buy, Cook, and Enjoy Amaranth, the Healthy Whole Grain You Should Eat More Of

  Amaranth and quinoa grains are useful functional ingredients for commercial food products because of their bioactive composition.

2.1. Amaranth

The genus Amaranthus in the Amaranthaceae family contains various cultivated species, including amaranth, that are primarily utilized as green vegetables and grains. The word “amaranth” refers to the group of about 60 species in this genus. Since ancient times, three species of amaranth have been grown entirely for grains: A. cruentus (red amaranth), A. caudatus (love-lies-bleeding), and A. hypochondriacus (Prince-of-Wales feather) (Cheng, 2018). Due to its multiple agronomic and nutritional benefits, amaranth—an underutilized crop has recently grown its popularity. Since it is known to be a drought-resistant crop, it may thrive in a variety of climatic and environmental conditions (Aderibigbe et al., 2022). Compared to other staple cereals like maize, wheat, and sorghum, amaranth has a higher protein level (14.0–15.5%), a lower fat content (7.5%), a higher carbohydrate content (60–68%), and less ash content (2.5–3.1%) (Table 1) (). Most cereal grains generally lack the essential amino acid lysine and are rich in valine, leucine, and isoleucine while amaranth is high in lysine (5.2–6.1g/100g protein) and therefore has a well-balanced amino acid composition and meets the needs of the human diet for the majority of the essential amino acids namely, alanine, valine, leucine, arginine, phenylalanine, methionine, tryptophan, isoleucine, and serine which suggests that amaranth is a pseudo cereal which can be used as a substitute to nutrient cereal (). Amaranth protein contains a comparatively high amount of sulfur-containing amino acids, which are typically scarce in pulse crops (Grobelnik et al., 2009). It has been noted that the protein content of amaranth grain is relatively close to the guidelines recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) because of its balanced amino acid profile. The FAO/WHO recommends a daily intake of 0.75g of protein per kilogram of body weight for adults (). The FAO listed amaranth as one of the most future promising crops for feeding the world's population. Among green leafy vegetables and cereals, amaranthus species are recognized as a storehouse for essential vitamins like vitamin B₆, C, folate, as well as carotene which is a precursor to vitamin A (). Amaranth contains remarkably higher levels of magnesium, calcium, sodium, zinc and iron than quinoa (). Amaranth is a gluten-free pseudo-cereal that might be included in gluten-free recipe formulations, thus providing a different food composition for celiac patients other than wheat and gluten-rich cereals ().

2.2. Quinoa

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) plant comes from the family of Chenopodiaceae. It is indigenous to the Andes, where it was successfully cultivated for human consumption between 3,000 and 4,000years ago in Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru (Bhargava et al., 2019). Chenopodium species were cultivated and domesticated in North America as members of the Eastern Agricultural Complex before maize cultivation became popular (). Quinoa seeds are an excellent raw material for producing nutritious and healthy foods. They are considered easy to digest because they lack gluten and are an exceptionally complete food because they contain a well-balanced combination of essential amino acids for humans (methionine and lysine) and are a rich source of phosphorus, magnesium, iron, fibre, and proteins (Abugoch James, 2009, Tang and Tsao, 2017, Vega-Galvez et al., 2010). The protein content in quinoa varies between (13.8%–16.5%), carbohydrates (52%–69%), fats (2.05%), and ash content (3.4%) (Table 1) (). The Andean people considered quinoa to be a gift from their gods and have consumed it as a sacred plant because of its high protein content and excellent balance of necessary amino acids (Filho et al., 2017). A large variety of antioxidant components, like vitamin C, carotenoids, and flavonoids are abundant in entire seeds (Vega-Galvez et al., 2010). Quinoa has a higher amount of calcium and iron compared to other commonly used grains. It contains about 0.26% magnesium, which is higher than wheat (0.16%) and corn (0.14%). The forms of calcium, magnesium, and potassium found in quinoa are considered biologically appropriate and the amounts present in the seeds are enough for a balanced diet (Repo-Carrasco et al., 2003, Vega-Galvez et al., 2010). The opportunity to substitute common cereal grains like wheat, rice, and corn with a pseudo-cereal of superior nutritional value like quinoa, is intrinsically advantageous to the interests of the general public (Ramos et al., 2021). Quinoa is a highly nutritious food that is rich in carotenoids, vitamins, and tocopherol, which are known to boost its antioxidant capacity and contribute to various essential physiological processes such as maintaining healthy bones and teeth, supporting the immune system, and aiding in energy production (). Quinoa is among the crops that have been evaluated as potential candidates for NASA's Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS). The CELSS system utilizes plants like quinoa to extract carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and produces essential resources such as food, oxygen, and water for the crew during long-duration space missions. This is because quinoa is highly nutritious and can be grown in a variety of environmental conditions ().

Table 2

Antinutritional components of amaranth and quinoa.

Anti-nutritional components	Structure	Pseudocereals	References
Phytic acid		2.9–7.9g/kg in amaranth seeds 10.5–13.5g/kg in quinoa seeds	Thakur et al. (2021)
Saponins		0.9–4.9mg/kg in amaranth seeds 6.3–692.5mg/kg in quinoa seed	Thakur et al. (2021)

Table 3

Effect of different processing techniques on nutritional and bioactive components of amaranth and quinoa.

5.1. Germination

Germination of quinoa seeds resulted in an increase in fiber and protein content, as well as higher levels of iron, zinc, and calcium. Additionally, germination led to a significant increase in phytase activity, which is an enzyme that breaks down phytic acid. As a result, the phytic acid content in the seeds decreased by 32% to 74% during the germination process. (). Liu et al. (2022) explored the impact of the germination period on the levels of antioxidants like ascorbic acid, phenolic components, tocopherol isomers, and antioxidant capacity in the seeds of quinoa. Compared to raw seeds, the total content of ascorbic acid and tocopherol enhanced after 72h of germination. During the germination period, total phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity increased significantly. Yadav et al. (2018) assessed the antioxidant capacity {ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)}, vitamin C, polyphenolic compounds, and flavonoid contents of raw seeds and industrially processed seeds during the period of soaking and germination and concluded that raw seeds had a higher concentration of bioactive compounds such as antioxidant capacity, flavonoid content and total phenolic contents than industrially processed seeds. Similarly, there was a significant increase in crude protein, crude fiber, phenolic content, and antioxidant activity (7.01, 74.67, 126.62, and 87.47%) but a significant reduction of 32.30% and 29.57% in tannin and phytic acid contents in amaranth seeds during the germination process, respectively (Priyanka et al., 2021).

5.2. Fermentation

Fermentation is another traditional processing method used to improve nutritional quality in grains and seeds. Liu et al. (2022) explored the influence of fermentation on the levels of ascorbic acid, tocopherol isomers, phenolic components, and antioxidant capacity in the grains of quinoa. It was found that both the tocopherol and ascorbic acid contents were significantly reduced while phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity increased significantly due to fermentation. As a result, fermentation turned out to be the most preferred method for improving the bioactive potential of quinoa. Likewise, Castro-Alba et al. (2019) demonstrated that lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are commonly used as starter cultures in food fermentation, and Lactobacillus plantarum has been found to be particularly effective in reducing anti-nutrients during the fermentation of quinoa flour. Aderibigbe et al. (2022) investigated the fermentation effect on the nutritional constituents of Ethiopian Amaranthus caudatus seed cultivars. The chemical characteristics of three cultivars were evaluated before and after the treatment of fermentation. Fermentation was found to increase the contents of fat, ash, and protein contents by 22, 14, and 3%, respectively. Similarly, Castro-Alba et al. (2019) observed that phytate content in amaranth is degraded during fermentation.

5.3. Extrusion

Extrusion cooking is a widely used food processing technique that involves subjecting food to high-temperature short-time treatment. This process can alter the molecular structure of starch and promote its interaction with other macromolecules by simultaneous application of high temperature and pressure (Jabeen et al., 2020). Abbasi, Moslehishad, and Salami (2022) conducted a study on amaranth hydrolysates and found that a longer hydrolysis period resulted in smaller-sized hydrolysates, indicating that hydrolysis time plays a crucial role in shaping the amaranth peptide profile. The extrusion process had a more significant impact on the peptide profile, leading to the production of more biologically active peptides. Additionally, it has been found that raw and extruded amaranth flours are good sources of biologically active compounds specifically ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitor peptides which are linked to the protection of severe chronic disorders. Furthermore, Srujana et al. (2019) investigated that in the quinoa extrudates, higher extrusion temperatures reduce the amount of unsaturated fatty acids while increasing protein digestibility by inactivating antinutrients like lectin and antitrypsin inhibitors. Inactivation of these antinutrients may further enhance the nutritional quality of quinoa extrudates.

5.4. Cooking and roasting

Repo-Carrasco-Valencia, Encina, Binaghi, Greco, and Ronayne de Ferrer (2010) conducted research on the effects of boiling and roasting on quinoa and amaranth seeds. The results showed a significant increase in the bioavailability of essential minerals such as zinc, iron, and calcium after these processing treatments. Additionally, bioactive compounds including phenols, dietary fiber, and minerals (such as calcium, zinc, and iron) were found to increase when compared to untreated cereals. Dialyzability studies were conducted to estimate the potential bioavailability of nutrients. The findings revealed that boiling of grains increased the dialyzability of zinc, iron, and calcium. However, roasting had no significant effect on the mineral contents.

Table 4

Bioactive components present in amaranth and quinoa.

Bioactive components	Sub-type	Source	Structure	Biological properties	References
Phenolic acids	Vanillic acid	Quinoa, Amaranth		Anti-cancer, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties	Kaur et al. (2022)
	Ferulic acid	Quinoa		Antioxidant, anti-diabetic, hepato-protective, anti-atherosclerotic, neuro-protective, anti-neoplastic, and anti-bacterial properties.	Dędek, Rosicka-Kaczmarek, Nebesny, and Kowalska (2019)
	Gallic acid	Amaranth		Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, anti-diabetes, anti-obesity, anti-microbial, and anti-myocardial ischemia properties.	Bai et al. (2021)
Flavonoids	Kaempferol	Quinoa		Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, cardiovascular, and neuroprotective properties.	Singh, Kumari, and Ahmed (2022)
	Quercetin	Amaranth		Antioxidant, antifungal, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and cytotoxic activity.	Bertazzo et al. (2011)
	Rutin	Amaranth		Anticancer, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, and haematoprotective properties.	Prasad and Prasad (2019)
Betaline	Betanin	Quinoa		Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-lipidemic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, antidiabetic, cardioprotective, and anti-inflammatory properties.	Sadowska-Bartosz and Bartosz (2021)
	Amaranthine	Amaranth		Antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic properties	Roriz et al. (2021)
Carotenoids	Lutein	Quinoa, amaranth		Antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties.	Srividya and Vishnuvarthan (2014)
	Zeaxanthin	Quinoa, amaranth		Antioxidant, antiparasitic, anthelmintic activity, antiosteoporosis, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties.	Bouyahya et al. (2022)
	beta-carotene	Quinoa		Antioxidant, immune-regulator, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and cardioprotective properties.	Anand, Mohan, and Bharadvaja (2022).
Tocopherols	α, β, γ, and δ tocopherols	Quinoa, amaranth		Antioxidant, cardioprotective, anticancer, antidiabetic, and antiobesity properties.	Shahidi and de Camargo (2016)

6.1. Phenolic acids

Amaranth and quinoa comprise bioactive phytochemicals in their outer layers functioning as a chemical defense against insects and microorganisms (). These components can be lipophilic or hydrophilic in nature. The seeds of amaranth and quinoa contain phenolic compounds, particularly phenolic acids, which are mainly located in the seed coat. Phenolic compounds are a class of relatively hydrophilic plant secondary metabolites that comprise phenolic acids, flavonoids, and tannins. These compounds are responsible for a wide range of physiological effects on the plant (Adetunji et al., 2021). Recent investigations have been conducted in quinoa on the identification of 23 phenolic components (vanillic acid, ferulic acid, and their derivatives) and flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin, and their glycosides). Quinoa comprises phenolic substances like ferulic acid-4-glucoside in the proportion of 132–161mg/kg of quinoa seeds, whereas vanillic and ferulic acids were found in conjugated forms (Tang et al., 2015, Tang et al., 2016). Amaranth is also a nutritionally essential pseudocereal and its sprouts and seeds have been shown to contain a variety of bioactive substances, including p-hydroxybenzoic acid, rutin, vanillic and gallic acids (). Phenolic acids like vanillic, 4-hydroxybenzoic, 4-syringic, and caffeoylisocitric acids (Vollmer et al., 2017), and flavonoids such as rutin, isoquercitrin, and nicotiflorine (Thakur et al., 2021) were present in amaranth varieties like ‘Tulyehualco’, ‘Nutrisol’, ‘DGETA’, and ‘Gabriela’.

6.2. Betalains

Pseudocereals are rich in betalains, the nitrogen-containing pigments. These are generated from tyrosine and they are later changed to L-3, 4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (l-DOPA). These can be divided into two subdivisions i.e. red-violet-colored betacyanins and yellow-orange-colored betaxanthins (). Betalains can be employed as a natural food coloring agent as well as effective scavengers to prevent DNA damage and oxidation of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) (). Amaranthine and isoamaranthine are two betacyanins found in amaranth while betacyanins such as betanin and isobetanin were the pigments found in red and black quinoa seeds (). Quinoa also contains betanins in the range of 1.5–61mg per kg of grain and in amaranth seeds (19mg/kg) as per estimations based on UV/Vis absorbance data (Cai et al., 2003, Repo-Carrasco-Valencia et al., 2010).

6.3. Tocopherols

Tocopherols are hom*ologs of vitamin E. Four tocopherol isoforms including α, β, γ, and δ have been discovered in amaranth and quinoa (). The most abundant tocopherol in quinoa seeds is γ-tocopherol which ranges in concentration from 47 to 53mg/kg dry weight (DW) followed by α-tocopherol which ranges from 17 to 26mg/kg DW and β as well as δ tocopherols found in trace amounts i.e. less than 5mg/kg DW (Bruni et al., 2002, Tang et al., 2015). Other investigations recorded that in amaranth seeds, the most prevalent tocopherols are α-tocopherol which ranges from 1.40 to 31.6mg/kg, β-tocopherol varies from 0.53 to 43.86mg/kg, γ-tocopherol varies from 0.06 to 8.69mg/kg, and δ-tocopherol varies from 0.01 to 48.79mg/kg (). Vitamin E analogs possess potent antioxidant properties and play important physiological roles such as controlling blood clotting, regulating metabolic processes, reducing inflammation, and combating cancer in humans (Joana Gil-Chavez et al., 2013).

6.4. Carotenoids

Carotenoids are important compounds found in many fruits and vegetables that act as antioxidants and can potentially be converted into vitamin A by the body. They have a range of benefits, including enhancing the activity of certain enzymes, improving communication between cells, regulating gene expression, supporting the immune system, and aiding in plant photosynthesis as a photosensitizer (). Lutein, which ranges from 3.96 to 12.01mg/kg, zeaxanthin, which ranges from 0.31 to 5.37mg/kg, and beta-carotene varies from 0.26 to 1.07mg/kg are the other carotenoids found in quinoa seeds (Tang et al., 2016). Amaranth seeds contain a lower amount of zeaxanthin and lutein i.e. 0.14–0.30 and 3.55–4.44mg/kg, respectively ().

6.5. Proanthocyanidins

Proanthocyanidins (PAs) also known as condensed tannins are a significant class of oligomeric flavonoids that are abundant in cereal and pseudocereal grains, including amaranth and quinoa. PAs have been found to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and anti-cancerous properties and have been linked to a decrease in the prevalence of various chronic diseases. These may be employed to develop foods with functional properties that enhance human health (Zhu, 2019). Mudgil, Omar, Kamal, Kilari, and Maqsood (2019) conducted a study to investigate the potential bioactive properties of hydrolysates derived from protein isolates of quinoa and amaranth. They used enzymes such as chymotrypsin, bromelain, and protease to hydrolyze the proteins at various time intervals and examined their antibacterial, antioxidant, and anti-hemolytic properties. They concluded that these hydrolysates could serve as an excellent source of bioactive peptides.

7.1. Anti-diabetic activities

The metabolic disorder known as diabetes mellitus (DM), which is characterized by a persistent increase in blood glucose levels, affects millions of people globally. DM affects a number of physiological processes, including enhancing peripheral tissues' consumption of glucose and reducing hepatic glucose production and adipocyte fat storage (). According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's study, DM is becoming increasingly widespread with 8.3% of Americans having diabetes, and an estimated 35% having pre-diabetes (Association, 2016). The anti-hypertensive and anti-hyperglycemic characteristics of amaranth and quinoa have been assessed for their capacity to lower the incidence of type II diabetes by using in vitro enzyme assays (), thus suggested that amaranth and quinoa can be used as natural remedies or dietary supplements for individuals at risk of developing type II diabetes. α-Glucosidase and pancreatic lipase are important enzymes for the digestion of complex carbohydrates and the absorption of triglyceride lipids, respectively. Food bioactive that inhibit these two enzymes raises the possibility of beneficial effects on blood sugar, thus, ultimately type 2 diabetes. The phenolic components of quinoa strongly inhibited the activities of α-glucosidase and pancreatic lipase (). Amaranth seeds have a limited preventive effect against diabetes caused by fructose. Amaranth seeds are helpful for treating hyperglycemia and reducing diabetes complications because the amaranth grain and its oil component have been found to be effectively lowered serum glucose and raised serum insulin levels in diabetic rats ().

7.2. Antioxidant activities

Numerous nutrients that are not required for life such as phenolics and carotenoids offer a variety of health-promoting qualities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, and antioxidant qualities (). Antioxidants are abundant in the seeds of quinoa and amaranth. The lipophilic and hydrophilic constituents of quinoa seed significantly inhibited glutathione, tyrosinase, MMP (matrix metalloproteinases), and catalase capacities and intracellular ROS generation in cultured cells and were believed to help in preventing the oxidation-related process of skin aging (Pasko et al., 2010). Quinoa seeds incorporated into the diet decreased oxidative stress in the heart, liver, lungs, plasma, kidney, spleen, testis, and pancreas of rats given with fructose and suppressed plasma lipid peroxidation as evidenced by a marked decline in the plasma malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Some antioxidant enzymes such as CAT (catalase), SOD (superoxide dismutase), and GPx (glutathione peroxidase) were able to maintain their regular activity when quinoa seeds were also administered (). They also demonstrated that rats treated with quinoa extracts had higher SOD and GPx activity in their livers, as well as higher levels of 12-hydroxy-eicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE) in their lungs. Another signaling molecule that counteracts oxidative stress is nitric oxide (NO), which is crucial for healing ROS-related damage. In cell models, amaranth seed extracts demonstrated potent antioxidant action, especially against the superoxide radical, and they prevented RAW 264.7 macrophages that had been activated by lipopolysaccharides from producing NO. Some components, such as betanins and quercetin were recognized anti-inflammatory and antioxidants agents, and the composition of the extracts was recorded; nevertheless, the study could not demonstrate a link between these substances and the antioxidant effects ().

7.3. Anti-inflammatory activities

Polyphenols isolated from quinoa has been shown to reduce IL-1 (interleukin-1), IL-8 (interleukin-8), and TNF (tumor necrosis factor) cytokines in cultured colonic epithelial Caco-2 cells, inhibit obesity-induced inflammation and support gastrointestinal health in mice (Shahbaz et al., 2022). Additionally, it has been demonstrated that the saponins in quinoa seeds block the overproduction of NO , TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor-alpha), and IL-6 (interleukin-6) which are involved in the inflammatory response, suggesting that quinoa saponins may be a useful dietary component for the treatment and prevention of inflammation (). It was discovered that the hydromethanolic extract of amaranth seeds decreased NO generation in mouse macrophage-like cell line RAW264.7 and increased NO₃⁻ and NO₂⁻ contents in the mouse body after a single oral administration of amaranth extract for eight hours (Liberal et al., 2016). People who engage in strenuous physical activity or sports may show decreases in NO levels as well as increases in NO₃⁻ and NO₂⁻ levels. The significantly decreased levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6 in RAW 264.7 macrophages and suppression of NFkB (Nuclear factor kappa B) translocation to the cell nucleus showed the anti-inflammatory characteristics of edible amaranth seed sprouts, which comprise selenium and betacyanins (Tyszka-Czochara et al., 2015). This showed that amaranth and quinoa grains have anti-inflammatory and NO-regulating effects.

7.4. Cardiovascular diseases

Diet is one of the key risk factors for cardiovascular disorders (CVDs) which is the leading cause of mortality and disability worldwide (Roth et al., 2020). The risk factors for CVDs include LDL cholesterol (LDL-c), total cholesterol, and triglyceride concentrations. In students aged 22 to 45, the impact of dietary quinoa on markers for CVD risk was assessed 30days after ingestion. Blood pressure and body weight were observed to be lowered in 42.2 and 40.7% of the people, respectively (). When hypercholesterolemic rabbits were fed an extruded amaranth diet and a diet containing amaranth oil, their levels of LDL-c, triglycerides, total cholesterol, and very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C) were shown to be lowered by around 50% compared to rabbits on the control diet (Madadi et al., 2020). They were divided into two groups: extremely low resistance group 1 included those with significantly low heart rate variability (HRV) (Total Power (TP) 400ms²), and low resistance group 2 included those with somewhat higher HRV (TP>400ms²). Group 3 consisted of regional and national competitors with TPs between 3500 and 7000ms² (Yelisyeyeva et al., 2012). Significant reductions in LDL, triglycerides, total cholesterol, and VLDL cholesterols were seen in human subjects who consumed 18mL of amaranth oil per day for 3weeks. Total blood cholesterol above 200mg/dl, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol below 35mg/dl, and LDL above 130mg/dL are indicators of problematic cholesterol (). High-quality polyunsaturated fatty acids, lutein, and tocopherols can be found in both quinoa and amaranth seeds (), however more studies are required to confirm their effects on potential CVD prevention in humans. According to De Carvalho et al. (2014), postmenopausal women who consumed 25g of quinoa flakes daily had lower levels of LDL-c and total cholesterol and higher levels of GSH.

8.1. Applications in foods

Amaranth and quinoa grains have been claimed as “super” grain-producing plants that have a tremendous prospect and huge economic viability for product development, especially in the baking area of food sectors. Unlike wheat, amaranth and quinoa are gluten-free, thus, making them ideal replacement raw materials for the development of gluten-free items. Amaranth and quinoa grains can be processed to add value so that they can be used as food and provide customers with the nutrition they need (Table 5).

At the household level, amaranth grain can be cooked and consumed as porridge, as well as malted to make beer (). It has been demonstrated that popping or roasting the amaranth grain will provide amaranth flour, which can be used alone or in combination with other components to prepare products including breakfast cereals, spaghetti, biscuits, crackers, bread, pancakes, and muffins (Aderibigbe et al., 2022). Unpopped grain can be prepared into a thin porridge by mashing it and adding groundfish or the flour of other grains including millet, sorghum, and maize (Janet, 2015). Amaranth grain can be used to make extruded products, bread goods, breakfast foods, and foods that are gluten-free either on their own or in composite flour. A variety of flatbreads are made with amaranth flour in the Himalayas and Latin America (Aderibigbe et al., 2022). Amaranth flour was added to wheat flour by up to 35%, according to Buresova et al., (2017). The organoleptic characteristics of the product were improved (flavor, taste, color, and appearance). The best product in terms of colour and organoleptic properties was found to have 25% amaranth flour substitution. Aderibigbe et al. (2022) produced cookies with wheat-grain amaranth composite flours and noticed that the products were sensory acceptable even when 100% grain amaranth was used.

There are many uses for quinoa. It has the potential to replace protein in food and fodder as well as in the pharmaceutical sector because it is one of the best sources of leaf protein concentrate. The entire plant can additionally be used as green fodder for livestock such as cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, and poultry (Hanco*ck, 2022). Quinoa can be used in place of rice, as a hot breakfast cereal, or for making infant cereal by boiling it in water. The seeds can even be popped like popcorn. Seeds can be sprouted or pulverized and used as flour. Sprouts must turn green before being put into salads (). Quinoa flour can be combined with maize or wheat flour. There have been reports of quinoa flour substitution at various concentrations such as 10%–13% quinoa flour in bread, 30%–40% quinoa flour in noodles and pasta, and 60% quinoa flour in sweet biscuits (). Additionally, quinoa flour can be extruded and drum-dried to produce products with great nutritional, sensory, and physical properties. Quinoa could be successfully used in the beverage sector to develop formulations for malted drinks. It can be used to feed animals or fermented to make beer (Singh et al., 2021). Quinoa is solid-state fermented with Rhizopus oligosporus Saito to produce high-quality tempeh ().

Amaranth and quinoa grains may significantly improve food security and nutrition, as well as supply raw and intermediate materials for companies to expand their scope of production and create employment if they receive the necessary care from cultivation to storage.

8.2. Applications in medicine

Amaranth has been suggested as a dietary supplement that can promote bone health due to its high calcium content, can assist blood sugar regulation due to its high manganese levels, and can help cure folic acid shortage in pregnant women to prevent spina bifida and heart problems in newborns (Soriano-Garcia et al., 2018). In the Himalayan region, 78 plant species have been found to have aphrodisiac qualities. According to a Kashmiri ethnobotanical study, A. spinosus decoction is administered orally to cure premature ejacul*tion and erectile dysfunction (). In some villages of Sivagangai district in Tamil Nadu, India, shoot infusion of A. spinosus L. is administered to eczema until it is cured (). In the silent valley of Kerala, India, traditional healers utilize a decoction of the leaves as a bath additive to treat skin allergies (Gandhi et al., 2020). Similarly, in the Alagar hills of Madurai district, Tamil Nadu, India, traditional healers employed an extract of A. spinosus L. whole plant to treat jaundice and liver enlargement (). In Africa, leaves of amaranth are used as a nutraceutical or functional food to treat tooth emergence in infants. It is also used as a diuretic to treat worms and to treat stomachaches and constipation (Gandhi et al., 2020).

It has also been stated that quinoa is used medicinally (). The plant is reportedly used as an analgesic, to treat inflammation, and to clean the urinary tract. Additionally, it is utilized as an insect repellant, for internal hemorrhaging, and fractures (). Recently, ethanol-induced acute gastric lesions in rats led to the cell wall polysaccharides viz., arabinan and arabinan-rich pectic polysaccharides to exhibit gastroprotective effects (). These reports might provide new opportunities for growing quinoa for medical purposes. It is believed that dietary flavonoids have positive health effects because they have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory characteristics (). Among cereals and pseudocereals, quinoa seeds are the most efficient food as a source of flavonoids. Large levels of flavonoid conjugates, including kaempferol and quercetin oligomeric glycosides, have been found in quinoa seeds in recent investigations (). Quinoa is also a good source of vitamin E (). In areas where there is a protein deficiency, the highly nutritive quinoa flour could be utilized to complement the protein-deficient wheat flour that is frequently used for human consumption. Quinoa's low fructose and glucose content makes it a good choice for people with maturity-onset diabetes. For consumers with celiac disease, quinoa flour can be used in tiny amounts in place of wheat flour to make bread. This has been found to improve the quality of bread ().

8.3. Applications in cosmetics

A new study has revealed that amaranth has tremendous cosmetic potential in addition to its significant role as a nutritious meal. Amaranthus spp. seed extracts were shown to have potential skin-whitening properties due to the presence of myoinositol and squalene because they have the ability to reduce melanin formation in vitro even more than the common arbutin (Gandhi et al., 2020). UVA (ultraviolet A) is known to inhibit collagen biosynthesis in skin fibroblasts. Oil from seeds of A. cruentus was discovered to provide pre-and post-UVA protection in skin fibroblasts, and as a result, it can be used in cosmetic formulations of anti-aging creams and as a natural sun protection factor (SPF) component (). In another study, a hydrogel nano-delivery system based on amaranth oil (nanostructured lipid carriers) allowed for sustained release of the antioxidant hesperidin and entrapment of UVA and UVB filters (diethylamino-hydroxy benzoyl hexyl benzoate, 2-ethylhexyl salicylate) which ensured the absorption of 99% UVB radiations (SPF ¼ 46/50.5) and had the ability to combat 83% of UVA radiation in the formulation. The amount of UV filters employed in the formulation was drastically lowered when compared to the measure present in commercial creams because of the entrapment with Amaranth oil. With continued usage, it is anticipated that the improved antioxidant qualities and superior photo-protection in the sunscreen formulation may lower the incidence of skin cancer and postpone the effects of photoaging (Lacatusu et al., 2018). The aqueous extract of A. cruentus L. was used to create a formulation for herbal lipstick, another cosmetic product that performed well according to the parameters assessed and was reasonably priced. This was done to encourage the use of natural formulations and natural dyes in order to prevent the negative effects of using synthetic ones (). A. tricolor is also cited in the literature to be used as a possible ingredient in beauty care for face spa in Bangladesh (). According to Busa and Getalado (2019), A. gangeticus leaf extract which is anthocyanin-rich, can be utilized as a natural hair colorant and can be a good replacement for synthetic hair dyes which are toxic. Additionally, there have been few reports of quinoa being used for cosmetic purposes. The main antinutritional components in quinoa's seed coat are saponins. Shampoos, detergents, and soaps are all made with saponins. In addition to being used to treat foul breath, quinoa saponins can also be found in toothpaste and mouthwashes (). Seeing the cosmetic potential of amaranth and quinoa, efforts should be made towards the utilization of amaranth and quinoa for this purpose.

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